Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students Rhonda Christensen

Teacher Education

Since the 1983 publication of A Nation at Risk by the National Commission on Excellence, there has been a strong emphasis on restructuring education. Despite funding for the transformation of schools through technology, the classroom of the early 1990s was still driven by lectures, textbooks, and passive learning (Kromhout & Butzin, 1993).

Findings of recent research (Marcinkiewicz, 1993/1994) showed that, regardless of the number of computers available in the schools, teachers have typically underutilized them. This fact supports the modification of current teacher training programs. To achieve integration of technology into the classroom, understanding the ways in which teachers can effectively use computers is essential.

Inservice Practices

According to Ritchie and Wiburg (1994), one of the characteristics that set exemplary computer-using teachers apart from others was their access to staff development activities that included instruction in using teacher productivity programs (gradebook, word processing, spreadsheets) and instruction that included using computers with specific subject matter taught by teachers.

There are at least three reasons why information received during an in-service workshop is not implemented in the classroom situations. These include: (a) failure to conduct a needs analysis to identify knowledge required by users; (b) presentations limited to factual knowledge which omit higher level thinking strategies; and (c) failure to incorporate activities which are relevant to the audience in a collaborative, problem solving approach. (Ritchie & Wiburg, 1994, p. 148)

Staff development is most effective when it is individualized. This means matching learning opportunities to the needs of specific teachers so they can choose what they need to know, how they wish to learn and the time frame in which they will learn it. Follow up support and coaching after the initial learning experience are essential to effective staff development. (U. S. Congress, 1995, p. 159)

How should technology be introduced and taught in undergraduate teacher education programs? Evidence supports the teaching of specific foundation courses as well as technology integration throughout the methods and elective courses (Todd, 1993; Wetzel, 1993). Findings in a study done by Koohang (1987) suggested that computer experience be provided for preservice teachers prior to their involvement in teaching. Studies have shown that teachers who are trained in technology coursework are more likely to use computers for their personal use and are also more likely to integrate them into their classroom (Hochman, Maurer, & Roebuck, 1993; Kearns, 1992).

Woodrow (1990) and others suggested that courses for novice users should focus on "user-friendly" computers and software. Students should leave their first class being able to do something that is practical and that will have an immediate application. Word processing and student record-keeping software are two good beginning packages (Woodrow, 1990). These introductory courses should promote positive computer attitudes, and they should assure that students (preservice teachers) are successful. If the students finish the class with a positive attitude toward computers, they are more likely to apply their newly acquired skills.

Technology Integration

The integration of computers into education requires an improvement in the instruction of teachers. Teachers require education in the use of technology as an instructional as well as a professional tool (Woodrow, 1992). Throughout the literature, the recurring solution to integration of technology in the classroom is teacher education (Burkholder, 1995; Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Shermis, 1990; Stoddart & Niederhauser, 1993). Burkholder observed that since the teachers are the ones who will implement the technology, training should focus on them. He contended that training should include strategic plans necessary to integrate the use of technology in the classroom rather than introducing teacher productivity tools alone (Burkholder, 1995).

Although there may not be agreement on how to involve technology in curricula, one common goal is to foster favorable attitudes toward computers. If positive attitudes are developed in students (preservice teachers), other objectives may become secondary (Bear, Richards, & Lancaster, 1987). Measures for assessing teacher development are also needed because it appears to be an important part of the change process (Riel & Harasim, 1994).

Teachers' Attitudes Toward Technology

Loyd and Gressard (1986) showed that positive attitudes toward computers are positively correlated with teachers' experiences. With familiarity, anxieties and fears tend to decrease and confidence increases. Lillard (1985) found that knowledge has a positive impact on teacher attitudes toward technology. Summers (1990) stated that one of the most common reasons for teachers' negative attitudes toward technology is the lack of knowledge and experience in this area. Gressard and Loyd (1985) also established that perceptions of the potential usefulness of computers can influence attitudes toward computers. The amount of confidence a teacher possesses in using technology may greatly influence his/her effective implementation in the classroom. Positive teacher attitudes toward computers are widely recognized as a necessary condition for effective use of information technology in the classroom (Woodrow, 1992).

Gardner, Discenza, and Dukes (1993) have determined that computer anxiety is a major cause of resistance to using computers. This and other research indicates that increased computer experience reduces computer anxiety in many student teachers. However, it may depend on the type of computer experience (McInerney, McInerney, & Sinclair, 1994). Beasley and Sutton (1993) found that at least 30 hours of instruction and practice were required just to reduce anxiety about technology. These authors contended that reducing uncertainty is just the first step to becoming confident and competent users of technology.

The successful use of computers in the classroom is dependent on the teachers' attitudes toward computers (Lawton & Gerschner, 1982). Educators are often resistant to using computer technology in the classroom, so changing teachers' attitudes is a key factor in fostering computer integration (Marcinkiewicz, 1993/1994). Stevens (1980, as cited in Violato, Mariniz, & Hunter, 1989) identified teachers' attitudes as well as expertise in using computers as major factors in the adoption of computers in the classroom. Koohang's (1989) research also found computer experience to be significant regarding attitudes toward computers. Although teachers' attitudes have not typically been considered in the introduction of computers into the classroom, future successful implementation will need to address teachers' attitudes toward computers (Hunter & deLeeuw, 1988, as cited in Violato et al., 1989). According to a research study examining the relationship between teacher attitudes and computer skills, it is critical that teachers possess both positive attitudes and adequate computer literacy skills to successfully incorporate technology into the classroom (Hignite & Echternacht, 1992).

Children’s Attitudes Toward Computers

Several studies have suggested that attitudes may be an important element in teaching children about computers (Woodrow, 1990). As stated by Todman and Dick (1993), "An important factor affecting the quality of the child’s experience of computers at school may be the teacher’s attitude toward computers".

Many researchers reported that children like computers and are positively motivated to use them (Shade, 1994). A review of the literature on attitudes toward computers by Lawton and Gerschner(1982) showed that children found computers to have infinite patience, never to get tired, never to forget to correct or praise, to be impartial to ethnicity and gender, and to be great motivators. In the same review, it was shown that students liked computers because they were self-paced, gave immediate feedback, and did not embarrass them when they made mistakes. The early studies found that negative attitudes and fears about computers were exhibited mostly by teachers, not children (Martin et al., 1992). Barba and Mason (1994) found that children do not see computer technology as a science but as a tool to be used in everyday life.

According to a report by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), there is a major problem with the existing research assessing the impact of technology. Most research relies on existing measures of student achievement. An important factor that needs to be included goes beyond student achievement and includes attitudinal measures. Student achievement is likely affected by students' attitudes about school and learning (U.S. Congress, 1995).

The research literature reflects much controversy over appropriate types of computer applications. Papert (1993), a well-known researcher on children and computers, feels that computers should be integrated into the curriculum. He stated, "Computer labs are not integration across the curriculum, they are integration across the hall. As such, they isolate the computer and make it [a separate] part of the very curriculum it should be supporting."

Although drill and practice software is roughly 80% of the software available for children ages 3 to 8 (Haugland & Shade, 1992), it has been shown to be inconsistent with National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) standards (Haugland & Shade, 1990). There is a need to ascertain the appropriate uses of computers in the classroom and to assess the effect on teachers' and students' attitudes toward computers.

Other variables possibly influence children's attitudes toward computers. One variable is the amount of home computer use. In addition, the type of applications students have used in the past may play an important part in their attitudes. If children have used computers for drill and practice activities, they may perceive computers as being in control and boring to use. With more open-ended applications, they may feel that they are in control and allowed to be creative (Shade, 1994).

Another important variable may be the environment for student instruction in computers. In some cases the classroom teacher is in charge of computer instruction in the lab and in the classroom. However, having visited numerous elementary schools, this researcher has observed that it is common for the students to go to a separate computer lab in which the teacher may or may not integrate computer use with classroom instruction.

Measures of Teacher Acceptance

Increase in Knowledge and Skills

A research study examining the relationship between teacher attitudes and computer skills concluded that it is critical for teachers to possess both positive attitudes and adequate computer literacy skills successfully to incorporate technology into the classroom (Hignite & Echternacht, 1992). Other research has shown that both knowledge of computers and computer experience have a positive impact on teachers' attitudes (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

In this study, two instruments were used to assess what the teachers knew as well as what they did not know. The Computer Inservice Needs Assessment (Davies, 1993/1994) (see Appendix A) includes open-ended questions regarding what teachers need to know, a self-rated categorical scheme representing computer use level as well as where they perceive themselves to be on a skills-based level. The Skills Check List contains specific items that will be included in the staff development sessions. This should show whether there is an increase in skill level regarding the use of technology.

Social Distance Theory

In a study comparing functional distance and the attitudes of educators toward computers, Norris and Lumsden (1984) found that teachers are more accepting of computers when they are perceived to be at a distance. In other words, teachers may accept that computers are valuable for education in general, but they are not so accepting of computers in their own classroom. Their questionnaire was adapted from the Bogardus Social Distance Scale used to measure social distance regarding nationalities of people. As evidenced in a collection of studies reported by the OTA, some non-technology-using teachers endorse the necessity of students' having access to information technology in the classroom. However, many of the teachers do not see why it should be in their classroom or what it offers them in pursuit of their instructional goals (U.S. Congress, 1995).

The Teachers' Views of Technology and Teaching (see Appendix B) is a composite of social distance measures used by Norris and Lumsden (1984) as well as items selected from an ILS evaluation instrument (Poirot, et al., 1992). It was used to measure how teachers felt about their teaching environment as well as how they felt about computers in their environment.

Stages of Adoption

Hadley and Sheingold (1993) conducted a nationwide survey of teachers experienced at integrating computers in the classroom. Based on an analysis of patterns, they developed five profiles based on characteristics of the participating teachers. These profiles include (a) enthusiastic beginners, (b) supported integrators, (c) high school naturals, (d) unsupported achievers, and (e) struggling aspirers.

A research study by Evans-Andris (1995) that involved teachers whose schools had possessed computers for at least 5 years revealed that teachers shape their interaction with computers through their style of computing. Three styles were shown to include almost all the participating teachers. These were avoidance (60%), integration (28%), and technical specialization (8%).

Cafolla and Knee (1995) presented Welliver's instructional transformation model describing stages that reflect the level of technology integration. The five stages are (a) familiarization, (b) utilization, (c) integration, (d) reorientation, and (e) evolution.

Similar to Welliver's stages, Russell (1995) presented stages of technology adoption. According to research conducted by Russell, adults learning new technology pass through six stages on their way to becoming confident technology users. These learners may begin at any point and progress through at their own rates. The stages include (a) awareness, (b) learning the process, (c) understanding and application of the process, (d) familiarity and confidence, (e) adaptation to other contexts, and (f) creative applications to new contexts.

The Stages of Adoption of Technology instrument (see Appendix C) was developed based on Russell's (1995) stages. It was selected for use in this study to determine the pre- and poststages of the teacher-learners.

Diffusion of Innovation

Research by Rogers (1983) has found that adoption of new innovations is an active process that involves much reinvention. Adopters must reinvent the innovation and make it their own if they are to continue using it. Similarly, in the education of teachers, teachers must be encouraged to reinvent activities and make them their own (Harris, 1994).

In a study comparing levels of adoption of technology and personality types, Rude-Parkins, Baugh, and Petroako (1993) defined three levels. At the "high level," teachers were enthusiastic and integrated technology into the classroom. The "medium level" teachers used some technology for personal use and some with students. The "low level" adopters used technology neither with their students nor for personal uses.

Havelock (1973) identified three roles as predictors of adoption of an innovation. Innovators are risk takers and are the first to adopt. Resisters are active critics of new innovations and are the last to adopt. Leaders size up the situation but will move ahead swiftly when they determine that the time has come. Although the leaders are the key to growth of any adoption, they are not usually in the first wave of adopters.

Based on an international study involving children, teachers, and computers, Pelgrum and Plomp (Collis, Knezek, Lai, Miyashita, Pelgrum, Plomp, & Sakamoto, 1996) stated the following:

Teachers are the main gatekeepers in allowing educational innovations to diffuse into the classrooms. Therefore one of the key factors for effecting an integration of computers in the school curriculum is adequate training of teachers in handling and managing these new tools in their daily practices (as cited in Collis et al., 1996, p. 31).

Christensen, R. (1998). Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton.